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I. Group Profile II. Beliefs and Practices of Islam "Islam is a religion based upon the surrender to God who is one. The very name of the religion, al-islam in Arabic means at once submission and peace, for it is in submitting to God's will that human beings gain peace in their lives in their world and in the hereafter. The message of Islam concerns God, who in Arabic is called Allah, and it addresses itself to humanity's most profound nature. It concerns men and women as they were created by God -- not as fallen beings. Islam therefore considers itself to be not an innovation but a re-assertion of the universal truth of all revelation which is God's oneness." 30In order for Muslims to submit themselves to Allah and reassert their faith in Islam, there are various practices and beliefs that each Muslim should follow. Islam for Muslims isn't just a belief, it is a way of life. What they believe, dictates how they should live for Allah. The following are generally accepted practices, however each sect and subgroup may adapt them to fulfill their own beliefs. Shari'a: This is "a sacred law to guide Muslims in all times and places. It establishes the context for Islam as a political force. Where the Qu'ran may be seen as the constitution of Islam, the Shari'a is the corpus of laws that explicates it." 31 The Shari'a is essentially what unites all the diverse communities of Islam. It is the core of how to be a Muslim regardless of your sect or subgroup. However, in the contemporary world, the Shari'a has come under much debate as to how it can and/or should be re-interpreted in order to adapt to the modern era. Five Pillars of Islam : these are obligations of every Muslim that uphold the structure of Islam. Sunna : "the combination of the Hadith and the Qu'ran interpreted as the way of life of the Prophet that Muslims take as theirmodel or code of Muslim Orthodoxy." 33Six Pillars of Faith: They are meant to be a "practice-oriented" approach. . .to be ritually affirmedat the time of conversion or whenever one's doctorinal orientation is called into question by the religious authorities of the Islamic State. Similar to Christian belief in the New Testament.The Qu'ran states that the Last Day "will occur suddenly and with great cosmic upheaval: "when the sun ceases to shine; when the stars are falling down and the mountains are blown away. . .when the seas are set alight and men's souls are reunited. . ."(Qu'ran 81,82) And at this time the Mahdi, a messianic figure will appear. 35 III. Major Sub-Groups of Islam Given the long history and immense population of Islam, it comes as no suprise that over the centuries individuals have come to interpret their beliefs in Islam differently. Sects, factions, and subgroups have all emerged over the years, choosing to believe and focus their faith in Islam in varying ways. The first divisions in the core of Islam date back to Muhammad's death when followers debated over who would succeed him as their spiritual leader. They initially divided into two groups, the Sunnis and the Shi'ites . Today there are many more sects branching off these groups and independently from the foundation of Islam. Here we highlight only the most prominant ones. Sunnis: Meaning "traditionalists", Sunnis are the most dominant sect of Islam, comprising about 87% of Muslims worldwide. Sunnis are united in their belief "in the legitimacy of the first three caliphs(successors to Muhammad) Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman, and their strict adherence to the Sunna . 36 Within the Sunnis, there are further divisions into the four schools of faith varying in their strictness of interpreting how the Prophet lived. These are: Shi'ites: From the beginning, 38 The fundamental belief of this sect is
that they "insist on the importance of descent from Muhammad's
family and feel that the role of the Prophet's first successor
should have gone to Ali."
39 Ali was the husband of the Prophet's
only surviving daughter, Fatima. Eventually, Ali did become the
fourth caliph, but was assassinated by a member of another Muslim
sect the
Kharijites . This sect also splits
into further subgroups of religious beliefs:
401. Seveners - acknowledge only
six of the twelve Imams
of the Shi'ites, and the seventh is Ismail Ibn Jafar who
is not recognized by anyother sect. They are awaiting the return
of Ismail's son Muhammad whom they believe disappeared and is
the next Imam. They do not believe that "Muhammad was the
last prophet but was actually followed by a number of others,
they are considered wildely heterodox."
412. Twelvers - believe in Ali and
his eleven directly hereditary successors, "imputing to
them doctorinal infalliablity and freedom from sin." Like
the Seveners, they believe their last descendent, the twelth
Imam disappeared and are awaiting his return "amid the evils
of the world at the
Last Day as the Mahdi."
42Sunnis vs. Shi'ites : There are
a number of similarities between these two sects, however there
are two fundamental differences in their beliefs which have divided
them for centuries.
1. Sunnis believe in the order of the first four caliphs.
While they accept Ali, they do not place him as important as
the Shi'ites do. Shi'itesadhere to the belief of Ali as the Prophet's
rightly guided successor and actually prefer to call the calips,
Imams.
2. Shi'ites prefer the practice of ijithad , which
is the individual interpretation of the law by scholars.
Whereas Sunnis strictlybelieve in the ijma , the consensus
of Muslim scholars, in addition to the ijithad. Also, Shi'ites
are less strictin their adherence to the five pillars and do
not believe in the hadith.
43Sufism: Sufism
is a mystical sect of Islam. The name is derived from the
word "suf" which means wool. Wool reflects the garments
worn by the earliest Sufis, and was the traditional clothing
of the Prophet. While sufis are often considered a heretical
sect due to their mystical beliefs, some argue that they are
in fact the most orthodox believers of Islam. In fact, according
to Peter Occhiogrosso, during the "earliest days of Islam's
expansion in the mid to late 7th century, Sufis functioned as
missionaries and spiritual masters, addingimmeasurably to the
richness of Islamic life."
44 What distinguishes Sufis from other orthodox
Muslims is their search for spirituality within Islam in addition
to following the laws of the faith. They seek "a reverence
for the inner truth of Islam in addition to the formal or sacred
law, by incorporating spiritual experience into every facet of
daily life and breath. . .they seek a direct and complete experience
with God, not merely of interaction with God but, ultimately,
a divine union."
45 Sufis follow a path led by a shaykh
who is the individual's spiritual guide on the journey into
the soul. Where the Sufis diverge most significantly from mainstream
Islam is in their belief of saints and martyrs, not unlike Christianity.
Mainstream Islam rejects the idolatry because they feel that
one's relationship with Godshould be direct, and not mediated
by a third party. Sufism in general is one of the most controversial
subgroups withing Islam because of its unique interpretation
of how to practice and believe in Islam.
Islamic Fundamentalism: Islamic
Fundamentalists "are Muslims who are convinced of the
Shari'a's eternal validity and who attempt to live by it to the
letter. For them, it is not important that the law was developed
one thousand years ago: can the truth become outdated, does God
change his mind?"
46 Fundamentalists believe that the law
and guidance of Allah that was first revealed to the Prophet
is just as relevant today as it was then, and they seek to establish
the ideal society that Allah proposed.
Islamic Fundamentalists emerged as a powerful ideology in
the eighteenth century."
47 They were established as a reaction to
what they saw as the weakness of Muslims as a result of falling
away from the ideals of the Shari'a due to increased Western
Influence.In order to fulfill the Shari'a, it is necessary for
Fundamentalists to be active in politics. They wanted to assert
the values of Islam into every aspect of life. This included:
Fundamentalists view the lifestlye of the West as a threat
and the antithesis of what the Shari'a represents. Because Western
influence on Islam has grown, particularly in the twentieth century,
Fundamentalists have reactedoften violently to this intrustion.
"Fundamentalist Muslims come to see Islam as almost a blueprint
for a social order which could be set off against capitalism
or communism as rival social systems."
48 This conflict is one of the main reasons
Islam is often viewed negatively by Westerners.
Even though Fundamentalists are staunchly opposed to western
values and influence, they often contradict themselves when it
comes to modernization. In order to establish themselvesas a
legitimate force, they need the modern technology provided by
the West. "They are eager to make use of the factories,
the weapons, and whatever else helps to increase their power
and wealth."
49As with every sect, there are a number
of Islamic Fundamentalists groups, and not all are violent in
nature, this is a common western misconception. It is just important
to note that in the past century, they have become a significang
influence regarding Islamic society. Two groups are listed below
to reveal some aspects ofIslamic Fundamentalism.
The Wahhabi Movement: "they are considered the
most reactionary of all Muslim sects and they refuse any innovation
on Qu'ranic Law."
50 They want to return to the ideal "fundamental"
form of Islam like that in the era of the first four calips following
the prophet.
Kharijites: meaning "seceders",
they are "reputedly the oldest religious sect of Islam.
"They were fiercely violent and were actually responsible
for the assassination of the fourth caliph Ali. They are considered
strict "fundamentalist and Qu'ranic literalist. . .and felt
that any true believing and righteous Muslim could be elected
to the caliphate"
51 and that the succession of the Prophet
was open to anyone of the true faith, and not just the Sunnis
and Shi'ites.
V. Islam and the Western World According to Huston Smith, "no part of the world is more hopelessley and systematically and stubbornlymisunderstood by us than the complex of religion, culture, and geography known as Islam." 52 Historically this has often led to a negative perspective by Westerners of Islamic regions, because of their inabilityto understand the fundamental aspect of their lifestlye that is Islam. The relationship between Islam and the West has always been precarious. Islam is such a fundamental aspect of everyday life of most Arabs, that the secular societies of the West find difficult to relate to it. There has been centuries of resentment and mistrust built up between these two seemingly conflicting ideologies. Much of it stems back centuriesover religious conflict and territorial interests, all of which are still pertinent today. And while not all Arabs are Muslim and vice versa, this section will deal mostlywith the conflict between the Arab world because it contains the largest proportion of Muslims and is where the conflict originated. According to Edward Said, author of Orientalism , the history of anti-Arab prejudice can be traced back to when "Islam was born, when Islam was a political and economic threat to Europe." 53 However, much of the current antogonism between Islamic countriesand the West lie in the 19th and 20th century colonialism of the Middle East by the West. In 1896 Great Britain colonized Egypt and remained an influential presencethere and in the Arabian Penninsula for the next fifty years. The mistrust and duplicity that rose from this relationship laid the foundation for future generations. During World War I, the Ottoman Empire sided with the Germans. The British in response turned to the Arabian Pennisula in hopes of gaininga strategic ally. They appealed to Sharif Hussein, the Islamic religious leader of Mecca and a descendent of the Prophet. He agreed to attack the Ottomans with the assurance that if they wonthe UK would support his desire to establish and Independent Arab State. This became known as the Hussein- McMahon Correspondence of 1916. 54Hussein however, was unaware of a promise the British has made to the French for the same territory in 1915. The Sykes-Picot Agreement divided up the Ottoman Empire into British and French spheres of influence at the end of World War I. In the end, France received Lebanon and northern parts of Iraq, the British held onto the southern part of the penninsula and Hussein and his sons were given Syria, Jordan, and Iraq. However, the deceit by the British forever tarnished the trust between the Arabs and the West. This trust was severed futher when the Zionist Movement at the turn of the century further threatened Muslim and Arab Territory. Zionism was founded by Theodor Herzl who argued on behalf of European Jews that they were not safe in Europe and they deserved a national homeland of their own. It was decided that Palestine where Judaism wasfouned would be the homeland of the Jews. Intially only a small wave of Jews immigrated to Palestine, but with the rise of Hitler thousands migrated there. However, establishing themselves there conflicted with the pre- established Arab population. In 1917 in the Balfour Decleration, the British supported a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This Western support only strengthened the Arab opionion of British duplicity because they were giving away land they had already promised to the Arabs and that was not theirs to give away. In 1948, the Independent State of Israel was declared and thousands of Arab Palestinians fled their homes. Since this time there have been countless battles and border disputes between Arab/Islamic states and the Jewish State of Israel. After the Arab states gained their indpendence in the middle of the 20th Century, British and French influence has been minimal, but it was replaced by the United States and USSR. Neither nation saw ideological interest in the Islamic or Jewish states but sought to exert their influence out of strategic importance during the Cold War. Western influence eventually became unwelcomed but still necessary and today there is a persistant internal and external conflict over the interests of the Modern west an VI. Islam in the United States Prior to the twentieth century, Islam remained a relatively unknown and foreign religion and lifestyle to Americans. However, this changed in the twentieth century when the there was a substantial increase in Muslim migration to North American, as well as the introduction of the Black Muslim movement. I have not been able to locate any specific reason for the sudden mass immigration of muslims to the U.S. other than the general one posed byJohn Esposito that they came "in a quest for a better life, beginning in the middle 1870s with groups from Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine." 55 However, Jaques Jamier agrees that Muslims began migrating from this Middle Eastern region "in the decades before the First World War. . .[but] the process of Muslim community building only reallybegan seriously during the 1920s and 30s primarily in the local level in the industrial towns." 56 Today, Islam is the second or third largest religion in the United States, and has established organizations, mosques, and communities within the western environment. The Black Muslim movement is the other source of Islamic growth in the United States in the twentieth century. Given the wide variety of religions in the United States, it comes as no suprise that Islam has also becomepart of the culture for numerous Americans. Some choose to adopt this new way of life, others are immigrants of Islamic cultures looking to maintain their faith in a new place. Islam came to the forefront of American culture when it was adopted by African Americans during the tumultous 1960s, when Malcolm X defined Islam as the religion of his people and a means of "Black Empowerment". Nation of Islam: founded in 1931, by Wallace Fard Muhammad, and brought to national attention by Malcolm X and later Louis Farrakan. You can use the link to find out more information on the importance of this movement to the history of the United States and African Americans. Current Events: Rival U.S. Black Muslim Groups Reconcile 57February 25,2000: Louis Farrakhan and Wallace Dean Mohammed, leaders of the Nation of Islam and Muslim American Society respectively, reconciled their rivalry after 25years. Islam in the United States: This is a link for Islams in the United States, addressing currentevents, local practices and laws pertaining to their rights and beliefs. IV. Women in Islam One of the most controversial aspects of Islam from the perspective of the Western World is its treatment of women. From the Western perspective, Islamic women are seen as oppressed, unequal, and denied the same rights as Islamic men and their Western "sisters". Westerners see women in the traditional hijab . The hijab is the required dress of Muslim women according to the Qu'ran, in its simplist form it requires women to wear headscarves. Westerners view Muslim women who wear the hijab as being subjected to submission by men in their society, and denied the same rights. Given the impact of the feminist revolution in the West, the restrictive role of women in Islamic societyis seen as a violation of their basic human rights. The Qu'ran states that women should be modest, "they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof." (24:31) There is no mention of women wearing the hijab but it is believed that Fatima, the prophet's daughter, the most highly acclaimed Muslim woman, wore one. She is believed to embody the Islamic ideals of womanhood. 58What is important to keep in mind, and westerners often forget, is that for Muslims, Islam is not just a belief and religion, but a lifestyle. How women live in Islamic societies(though not all) is an act of obedience to God(Allah), not men. Ziba Mir- Hossein, a Muslim woman from Iran writes in her book, Islam and Gender , that Islam "is too hard to address from the outside, there is almost no point because Islam is a way of life, not just a belief so you cannnot understandroles and rights unless you understand the belief. Western values are meaningless." 59 As a Muslim woman, she states that within Islam there are two views heldby women. One is "shari'a based", Islamic women who defend their way of life against Western criticism, especially Western feminist. The second view is "feminist-based", a more complicatedgroup of women of Islamic backgrounds, some of whom "clearly locate their feminism in Islam, and others who make a point of distancing themselves from any Islamic association." 60In severe cases of obvious repression, such as the Taliban in Afghanistan , where women are clearly subjected by society and not God to an inferior position, there is cause for worldwide concern. However, in other cases, Islamic women, even those outside of predominantly Islamic societies, prefer to wear the hijab or headscarves and follow traditional roles. Sultana Yusufali , a 17 year old girl, who lives in Toronto, Canada defends wearing the hijab because she feels it gives her more freedom than other Western girls her age who are constantly judged by their looks. She says that "my body is my own business. Nobody can tell how I should look or whether or not I am beautiful.I know that there is more to me than that. I am also able to say no comfortably when people ask me if I feel as though my sexuality is being repressed. I have taken control of my sexuality." 61According to the Qu'ran, men and women are looked upong equally by God, "be you male or female, you are members of one another." (3:195) 62 And unlike Judeo-Christian religions, the Qu'ran places blame on both Adam and Eve for original sin. In the Islamic faith women and men are considered complimentary halves of the same soul, equal but different. Therefore, according to Dr. Lois Lamya 'al Faruqi, "if Muslim women experience discrimmination in any place or time, they do notand should not blame Islam, but on the un-Islamic nature of their societies and the failure of Muslims to fulfill its directions." 63In today's modern world, the practices and treatment of Muslim women vary widely. In countries like Afghanistan, Muslim women are outrightly oppressed by society and this is justified in their belief through Islam. In othercountries women choose to express their faith through traditional dress and practices, while others are adopting Western appearances and interpreting their faith and adapting the Qu'ran more liberally. The following are some excellent resources on the web concerning women in Islam. Articles written byMuslims and non-Muslims. Islam and Women : A number of articles in this site address feminism in Islam, and defining and defending the role of the hijab. The Muslim Women's Homepage : This site lists over a hundred different articles for women addressing their rights, their roles in society, marriage, and attempting to dispelthe widespread stereotyping of Islamic Women. Islam and Women's Rights : A comprehensive link of women's rights in Islam, a compartive look at Islamic and Judeo-Christian Women, and addressing women's roles according to the Qu'ran. About.com
Introduction to Islam Virtually Islamic.com Islamic
Studies, Islam, Arabic, and Religion Islam 101 IslamWorld
IslamiCity
Council
on American Islamic-Relations Al-Tawhid
Web Pages on Islam The Koran (Qu'an) IX. Bibliography
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