Hinduism
| History | Beliefs
| Hinduism in America | Glossary
| Links | Bibliography
|
I. Group Profile
- Name: Hinduism
- Founders: The roots of Hinduism have been traced back
to the Indus Valley Civilization and the Indo-Aryan culture.
Indo-Europeans extended the name of the province of Sindh to
the whole country lying across the Indus river. The inhabitants
were simplycalled Hindus, Persian for "sindh" and their
religion was thus called Hinduism. 1
- Year Founded: Hinduism does not owe its existence
to any single historic event. Rather, it is a complex religionthat
has continually evolved and transformed over the course of milleniums.
Because the Indus Valley practiced a religion possessingseveral
features common with modern Hinduism, the beginnings of Hinduism
has been dated back to the time in which the civilization flourished,approximately
2500 B.C. 2
- Sacred or Revered Texts:The sacred literature of Hinduism
can be divided up into two distinct categories: sruti and
smriti . Shruti , that which is heard or divinely
revealed, consist of the Vedas , the most ancient of the
scriptures, the Upanishads , the Brahmanas , and
the Aranyakas . Shrutis refer to the manifestation
of the divine in the world, and more specifically, the truths
revealed by the dieties to the early sages or rishis .
There are four collections which comprise the Veda , the
Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda , and Atharva Veda
. The Veda contain accounts of creation, information
on ritual sacrifices, and prayers to the dieties. The Upanishads
are considered to be the most important of the remaining
three scriptures of shruti literature. It is believed
that these texts were secret scriptures taught by a sage to a
disciple. 3
The other type of Hindu literature, smriti , that which
is remembered or handed down. These texts are also considered
to be based upon revealed truths, however, theyare of human composition
as opposed to that of the divine. The Epics, the Sutras and
the Puranas comprise the bulk of the Smriti literature.
The earliest of theseepics are the Mahabarata , which
includes the Bhagavad Gtia , and the Ramayana .
These sacred texts are lenghty poems which narrate episodes in
the lives of the great warriors. Krishna appeared in the first,
and Rama had a central role in the second of these great epics.
The Sutras contain a number of important texts concerning
subjects such as dharma, yoga and Vedanta. The most important
of these texts was the Manusmriti or Laws of Manu, which
dealt with Hindu law and conduct.The Puranas are mythological
texts which often told the stories of the gods and goddesses.
4
- Cult or Sect: Negative sentiments are typically implied
when the concepts "cult" and "sect" are employed
in popular discourse. Since the Religious Movements Homepage
seeks to promote religious tolerance and appreciation of the
positive benefits of pluralism and religious diversity in human
cultures, we encourage the use of alternative concepts that do
not carry implicit negative stereotypes. For a more detailed
discussion of both scholarly and popular usage of the concepts
"cult" and "sect," please visit our Conceptualizing
"Cult" and "Sect" page, where you will
find additional links to related issues.
- Size of Group: Figures are not exact because of the
enormous size of this world religion, but it is estimated that
there is somewhere between 800 million and 1 billionHindus living
in the world today. Approximately 79% (750 million) of India's
population is Hindu. Nepal has an even greater concentration
of Hindus in comparison to other faiths. Eighty- ninepercent,
or 17 million people follow Hinduism in Nepal. Hindus account
for 11% (12.6 million) of the population in Bangladesh, 2.5%
(4 million) in Indonesia, 15% (2.8 million) in Sri Lanka, 1.5%
in (2.12 million) in Pakistan and 6% (1.4) in Malaysia. In the
United States, Hindus only account for 0.2% (0.9 million) of
the population. 5
II. History
The Indus Valley Civilization thrived in Northwest India from
the middle of the third milleniumB.C. to the middle of the second
millenium B.C. The civilization was a well developed culture
centered aroundtwo major cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. 6 Indo-Aryans, a nomadic tribe,
began to migrate into this area around 1500 B.C., roughly the
same time as the mysterious disappearance of the Indus Valley
civilization. The religious scriptures of the Indo-Aryans, the
Vedas , serve as the most widely aknowledged basis forHinduism.
The Vedas are said to be the eternal truths of the religion
and are upheld as the supreme authority for Hinduism. 7
The Vedic Period (2000 B.C. - 400 B.C.)
The Vedic literature of this period shows four consecutive
stages in which they were recorded: Samhitas or Mantras
, Brahmanas, Aranyakas , and Upanishads . 8 The Samhitas were hymns
in praiseof the dieties. The Hindu ideas of dharma and
karma were derived from the Vedic Mantras conception of
rita , or cosmic order.The gods were guardians of this
cosmic order and so they had to be propitiated by means of sacrifice.
9 Thus, the age of the Samhitas
was suceeded by the age of the Brahmanas , texts dealing
with the meaning and technicalities of these sacrificial rituals.
10 During this age, priesthood
became all powerful, the four stages of life were formulated,
and new doctrines began to appear. 11
Most important of these new doctrines was that of transmigration
and caste. Itwas originally believed that one was liable to death,
even in heaven. Now, the Brahmanas had declared that all
beings must be reborn over and over again, in an endless cycle.
From transmigration arouse the need to be released ( moksha
) from the earthly and heavenly existence. 12
The age of the Brahmanas was followed by the age of
the Aranyakas and Upanishads , philosophical and
mystical texts dealing with the quest for atman , the
knowledge of the self. It was during this period that the foundations
of Hinduism were solidly laid. Gods and sacrifices receded into
the background and the quest to realize ultimate reality became
essential. The Upanishads contain one main theme, the unity of
the individual soul or atman and the one impersonaland
absolute univeral spirit or Brahman . 13
The Epic and Classical Periods (400 B.C. - 600 A.D.)
Throughout the epic period (400 B.C.-400 A.D.), the Indo-Aryans
increasingly settled into towns and cities, and ceased to be
a nomadic people. They mainly settled in the Gangetic Plains
of North India, and they infused their religion with the religion
of the indigenous people they had come to dominate. 14 To this period belongs the two greatest Hindu
epics, the Ramayana , 'The Story of Ram' and Mahabarata
, 'The Great Story of the War of the Bharatas.' 15 Both epics concern themselves with the royal
heroes' duties to maintain the harmonious realm of dharma and
preserve and refine social order, as well as those vedic rituals
and religious practicesthat ensure it. 16
The Bhagavad Gita , the 'Song of the Lord', is the
most popular of the Hindu Scriptures. The Gita is famous
because it touches on the main concerns of the Hindu orthodoxy.
In addition, important new doctrines, namely bhakti (devotion
to God) and avatara (incarnation of God), were introduced
in this text. 17 The Laws
of Manu, literature on the ideal nature of society, were also
a product of the epic period. The Law books were primarily concerned
with maintaining social stability through a hierarchically arrangedcaste
system. 18
The Medieval Period (600 - 1800 A.D.)
The medieval period in Hinduism is primarily characterized
by the rise of devotional movements, the systematization of Hindu
philosophy into six schools, and the rise of Tantrism. With the
rise and spread of devotional ( bhakti ) movements, came
the rise of temples as important religious centers in Hinduism.
The mythology of the dietiesworshipped at these temples became
systematized in a genre of works called the Puranas ,
or 'Stories of old'. 19
The second major development in this period was the production
of the six schools of Hindu philosophy: Nyaya ("Analysis"),
Vaisheshika ("the School of Individual Characteristics"),
Sankhya ("the Count"), Yoga ("spiritual
discipline"), Mimamsa ("Enquiry" or "Thought"),
and finally, Vedanta ("the End of the Vedas").
These philosophies,ranging from non-theism to monotheism to dualism,
emphasized differing means of obtaining the same supreme goal,
to achieve union or closeness with the ultimate being. 20
The third major development, the Tantras , are sectarian
scriptures of the Saktas, who worship Sakti , the supreme
being personified as a goddess. The Tantras , 'Rules or
Rituals', claimed to introduce methods which could lead directly
to liberation without traditional ritual practices. They insteadoffered
a variety of rituals that employ mantras, mandalas, and yogic
techniques. Through their complex rituals and theologies, the
Tantras , together with the Puranas , had a significant
influence on popular religion throughout the medieval period.
21
The Modern Period (1800 - Present)
The modern period of Hinduism was, and continues to be, heavily
influenced by its increasing contact with Western cultures. From
the middle of the ninteenth century to the middleof the twentieth
century, England provided a substantial background for the major
developments of this period through its political and economic
domination. With the arrival of Western powers in the eighteenth
century, Westerners and Hindus alike began to express criticism
towards the Hindu traditions. Hinduism, however, experienced
a revival in the nineteenth century as a result of twomovements
driven to maintain the core essentials of Hinduism while doing
away with unwanted and criticized excess. 22
Ram Mohan Roy (1774 - 1833) founded the first of these movements,
Brahmo Samaj, a school of rational theism purely based on the
Upanishads . In contrast, SwamiDayananda(1824 - 1883),
founder of Arya Samaj, found the essence of Hinduism in the Vedas
. Furthermore, he denounced idol worship as well as the discriminatory
caste system. 23 Although
neither movement gained a considerably large audience, they succeeded
in contributing to the independence movement of the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries. The two most famous leaders of the independence
movement were Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1859 - 1920) and Mohandas
Karamachand Gandhi (1869 - 1948). Both leaders took the Bhagavad
Gita as central to their teachings and endlessly worked to
providea modern expression of the tension between renunciation
and support of the world. 24
III. Beliefs of the Group
Hinduism is more than a highly organized religious and social
system, it is a way of life. Hinduism is also called Santana
dharma , the eternal tradition orreligion. The central beliefs
of Hinduism revolve around two key concepts, dharma and moksha.
Dharma emphasizes the social and physical world in its demand
upon human destiny to uphold and preserve the physical world
and society as a whole. On the other hand, moksha refers to the
ultimate release from the world, or salvation, that can only
be obtained by transcending all physical and social limitations.
25 The underlying ideas behind
moksha and dharma are karma and samasara. Hindus hold karma as
the moral law of cause and effect, in that every action has a
moral consequence. Samsara refers to the cycle of births and
deaths in which every living organism is involved in. 26 Aside from dharma and moksha, Hindus also strive
for artha , material happiness, and kama , sensual
pleasure. Taken together, thesegoals are seen as the four ends
of man.
Although it is agreed that obtaining moksha is the
ultimate goal of any practicing Hindu, there is much disagreement
on the ways or paths( magna ) which should be taken to
obtain release from the cycles of life and death.There are three
paths to salvation that have been presented in Bhagavad Gita,
based on the desired results. The first path, karma magna
, the path of duties, allows discharge from social and ritual
obligations. Those who chose to take jana-magna , "the
path of knowledge", as their path to salvation strive to
realize the unity between the external Brahman and internal atman
as being one and the same. 27
Finally, bhakti-magna , "the path of devotion",
is obtained simply by devotion to the a personal God.
The principle of Brahman , or ultimate reality or One
that is All, is fundamentally central to the Hindu tradition.
Hindus believe that the entire universe is one divine entity
who is at one with the universe, while simultaneouslytranscending
it. This deity takes the form of three different gods, Brahma,
Vishnu , and Siva . Brahma is the supreme creator
who continually creates new realities in this world. Vishnu
or Krishna is the preserver of these new creations
and he helps to maintain dharma or social and religious
order. Finally, Siva is the destroyer. Taken together,
these three figures constitute the Trimurti or Hindu Trinity.
Hinduism can be categorized into four primary denominations,
Shivaism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, and Smaritsm .
However, the majority of Hindus either follow Vaishnavaism
, which regards Vishnu as the ultimate deity, or Shivaism
, which regards Shiva as the ultimate deity. 28
IV. Hinduism in America
In the past 150 years, Hinduism has increasingly become integrated
into American society. In the first 100 years of Hinduism in
the United States, followers of the Hindu tradition wereprimarily
involved in organizations promoting self-help practices such
as yoga and meditation. Recently, during the last 30 years, organizations
have developed that encourage a more formalritual worship by
means of Hindu temples. Whereas followers of self-help in the
initial period of Hinduism in America were Americans, the path
of rital worship is primarily followed by Hindu Indians in America.
29
The path of self help is understood as working towards spiritual
liberation through an intense relationship between the guru and
the disciple. The earliest American encounter with Hindu ideals
can be dated back to times of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David
Thoreaus. Both authors viewed the Bhagavad Gita as a significant
Asian contributor to philosophical issues, namely the nature
of self-discipline.Some 40 years later, Swami Vivekananda introduced
the nature of Hindu ideals in a public forum of the 1893 World's
Parliament of Religions in Chicago. Vivekananda affirmed the
spiritual quest of Emerson and Thoreau by emphasizing the Advaita
Vedanta philosophy. One year later, Vivekananda founded the Vedanta
society in New York. This group was the first Hindu organization
primarily designed to attract American adherents. Vivekananda's
mission of spreading the tenets of Hindu philosophy worldwide
was furthered by the efforts Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Together they
brought about a corss-cultural synthesis of Indo-American spiritualbonding.
30
The Immigration Act of 1965 resulted in a large influx of
immigrants from Asia due to the lifting of the national origins
quota system. Hindu Indian immigrants began building templeswith
a focus on the ritual worship of images during the 1970s. The
Hindu temples built during the 1970s can be classifies as ISKCON
(the International Society for Krishna Consciousness) temples
and Hindu immigrant temples.The ISKCON temples served a devotional
community comprised of both Euro-Americans and Indian- Americans.
In contrast, Hindu immigrants, with their diversified ways of
worship, used their temples as a means for bringing the culturalcommunity
together.
V. Glossary
A
glossary of Hindu/Sanskrit terms
Click on this site for an extensive list of Sanskrit terms used
in Hinduism.at http://hinduism.about.com/culture/hinduism/library/weekly/extra/bl-glossary-index.htm
VI. Links to Hinduism Web Sites
Hindu Web
Universe
This site provides a comprehensive guide to the vast world of
Hinduism. Topics include the history, customs, beliefs, scriptures
and arts of Hinduism.
http://www.hinduweb.org
Dharma Philosophy
This site offers an extensive description of Hindu Dharma and
scriptures as well as an overview of the Gods and Goddessses
of Hinduism. In addition, this site offers general resources
useful in researching the basics of hinduism.
http://www.hindu.org
Hinduism Home Page from About.com
This site contains information about all aspects of Hinduism,
ranging from Astrology to Festivals to Vegetarianism. This site
also provides some helpful links to a hindu glossary, a year
2000 Hindu almanac, and links to Sikhism and Jainism pages as
well.
http://hinduism.about.com
Encyclopaedia Britannica
This site provides a thorough review of the history, beliefs,
customs and sacred texts which are central to Hinduism. In addition,
this site contains a link to the "world's best websites
on Hinduism" and their ratings.
http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/0,5716,108344+1,00.html
Understanding
Hinduism
Considered one of the best educational resources on the internet
for Hinduism, this site offers an in depth review of the central
principles and practices of Hindus. This site also contains links
to information on meditation, women in Hinduism and the sacred
texts of the Hindu tradition.
http://www.hinduism.co.za/
Hinduism
Online
This is an informative site that offers extensive details on
the history, beliefs and practices of Hindus in the section titled,
"How to become a Hindu." This page alsoThose interested
can also access Hinduism Today from this site, an on-line magazine
"articulating Indian spirituality."
http://www.hinduismtoday.kauai.hi.us
Religion: Hindu Links
This site is a starting point for links to very specific aspects
of Hinduism such as Karma Yoga, Hindu Deities, and Symbolism.
This site is part of the Educational Resources Site.
http://www.zephryus.demon.co.uk/education/links/rehin.html
Shree
Swaminarayan Gadi
http://www.swaminarayangadi.com/
VII. Bibliography
- Basham, Arthur L., 1989
- The Origins and Developments of Classical Hinduism .
Beacon Press. Boston.
- Chaturvedi, M.D., 1992
- Hinduism, The Eternal Religion . Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
Bombay.
- Flood, Gavin., 1996.
- An Introduction to Hinduism . Cambridge University
Press. England.
- Hinnells, John R. and Eric J. Sharpe., 1972.
- Hinduism . Oriel Press Limited. England.
- Kinsley, David R., 1993.
- Hinduism A Cultural Perspective . Prentice-Hall, Inc.
New Jersey.
- Klostermaier, Klaus K., 1989.
- A Survey of Hinduism . State University of New York
Press, Albany.
- Knott, Kim, 1998.
- Hinduism, A very short introduction . Oxford University
Press. New York.
- Krishnamurthy, Visvantha, 1989.
- Essentials of Hinduism . Narosa Pub. House. New Delhi.
- Mahmoud, Cynthia Keppley. 1979.
- "Hinduism in Context: Approaching a Religious Tradition
Through External Resources." in in Stephen D. Glazier, (ed).
Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook. Westport, CT: Praeger.
pp. 305-318.
- Morgan, Kenneth W., 1953.
- The Religion of the Hindus . The Ronald Press Company.
New York.
- Occhiogrosso, Peter, 1994.
- The Joy of Sects: A Spirited Guide to the World's Religious
Traditions . Doubleday. New York.
- Organ, Troy W., 1974.
- Hinduism: Its Historical Development . Barron's Educational
Series, Inc. New York.
- Mahmood, Cynthia Kappley. 1997.
- Hinduism on Context: Approaching a Religious Tradition Through
External Sources. in
- Renou, Louis, 1963.
- The Nature of Hinduism . Walker and Co. New York.
- Sharma, Pushpendra K., ed.
- Hindu religion and ethics . Asian Publication Services.
New Delhi.
- Smith, Hutson, 1991.
- The World's Religions . HarperCollins Publishers.
New York.
- Zaehner, Richard C., ed., 1959.
- The Concise Encyclopedia of Living Faiths . Beacon
Press, New York.
- Zaehner, Richard C., 1966.
- Hinduism . Oxford University Press. New York.
-
VIII. References
- Klostermaier, Klaus K., 1989. A Survey of Hinduism .
State University of New York Press, Albany.
- Zaehner, Richard C., 1966. Hinduism . Oxford University
Press. New York.
- Knott, Kim, 1998. Hinduism, A very short introduction
. Oxford University Press. New York.
- Ibid.
- Kosmin, Barry A. and Seymour P. Lachman, 1993. One Nation
Under God: Religion in Contemporary American Society . Harmony
Books. New York, http://www.adherents.com/largercom/com_hindu.html
- Flood, Gavin., 1996. An Introduction to Hinduism .
Cambridge University Press. England.
- Morgan, Kenneth W., 1953. The Religion of the Hindus .
The Ronald Press Company. New York.
- Kinsley, David R., 1993. Hinduism A Cultural Perspective
. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
- Morgan, Kenneth W., 1953. The Religion of the Hindus .
The Ronald Press Company. New York.
- Kinsley, David R., 1993. Hinduism A Cultural Perspective
. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
- Morgan, Kenneth W., 1953. The Religion of the Hindus .
The Ronald Press Company. New York.
- Zaehner, Richard C., ed., 1959. The Concise Encyclopedia
of Living Faiths . Beacon Press, New York.
- Ibid.
- Kinsley, David R., 1993. Hinduism A Cultural Perspective
. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
- Hinnells, John R. and Eric J. Sharpe., 1972. Hinduism
. Oriel Press Limited. England.
- Kinsley, David R., 1993. Hinduism A Cultural Perspective
. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
- Basham, Arthur L., 1989 The Origins and Developments of
Classical Hinduism . Beacon Press. Boston.
- Ibid.
- Kinsley, David R., 1993. Hinduism A Cultural Perspective
. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
- Zaehner, Richard C., ed., 1959. The Concise Encyclopedia
of Living Faiths . Beacon Press, New York.
- Morgan, Kenneth W., 1953. The Religion of the Hindus .
The Ronald Press Company. New York.
- Kinsley, David R., 1993. Hinduism A Cultural Perspective
. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
- Morgan, Kenneth W., 1953. The Religion of the Hindus .
The Ronald Press Company. New York.
- Kinsley, David R., 1993. Hinduism A Cultural Perspective
. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.
- Ibid.
- Krishnamurthy, Visvantha, 1989. Essentials of Hinduism
. Narosa Pub. House. New Delhi.
- http://www.britannica.com/bcom/eb/article/0,5716,108344+1,00.html
- Ibid.
- Prentiss, Karen P., 1999. The Pattern of Hinduism and
Hindu Temple Building in the U.S. in the U.S. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/pechilis-prentiss/hindu_article.html
http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/pechilis-prentiss/hindu_article.html
- Ibid.
Created by Rashmi Nirmalani
For Soc 257: New Religious Movements
University of Virginia
Spring Term, 2000
Last modified: 11/29/01
|
