Metaphysical History

When Did Metaphysics Begin? Let's start with the word metaphysics. In the scheme of life here on earth, the word is fairly new. Coined in the late 300's B.C. by Aristotle. This advanced thinker and philosopher had written and titled a book about 'Physics'. This work dealt with the knowledge of physical science for the time. It is the study and theories of physical law that revolves around the "observed world". Almost immediately after the completion of 'Physics', Aristotle began his next work, 'Metaphysics'. This one was a continuation of the first, but where physics looks at the observed world, metaphysics looks at the underlying meaning and structure of world.   Metaphysics asks: What are space and time? What is a thing and how does it differ from an idea? Are humans free to decide their fate? Is there a first cause, or God, that has made everything and put it in motion? All the basic questions that humanity has struggled with since the dawn of time. Although there are many modern day theologians who would strongly argue the point, metaphysics is the underlying foundation for all modern religions. From Wicca to Catholicism.   Who Started This Philosophy? Well that's a little harder to answer. Certainly Pythagoras had some influence in the concepts. He founded the Pythagorean brotherhood, around 530 BC which was dedicated to reforming political, moral and social life within society based on their spiritual views. Heraclitus (who is sometimes called the Weeping Philosopher, or the Dark Philosopher) studied the theories of Pythagoras and expounded upon them with his own perceptions, is called the founder of metaphysics. Some people say Plato is the founder because of his work in philosophies and sociology. Aristotle was a student of Plato, and is also credited with being the originator of Metaphysics.   But if you look at the world as a whole, the same struggle to understand and search for the "meaning of life" was everywhere around the globe. The Egyptians had a pretty well defined set of philosophical and spiritual beliefs long before Aristotle. Plato gave rise to his views of an ancient culture that was divinely cultivated when he wrote of the legendary Atlantis and it's spiritually structured society. What of the pre-Incas and Aztecs? Their cultures were also embodied with spiritualism and mysticism of equal proportions to those written by the Greek scholars.   Most people give the main credit to Aristotle however. From my perspective, Aristotle is one of the first men to put the question "Who are we" on paper in way that was, in his time and still is today, an acceptable scientific theory for the inner workings of the universe. Probably because Aristotle was able to articulate his thoughts and his reputation as one of histories greatest thinkers, he has the credit for creating metaphysics.   But because these basic metaphysical questions are so personal, and cannot be resolved through simple study and research, many people dismiss the philosophy of metaphysics as pointless reasoning which can never find an end. Thus, even Aristotle's theories often take a back burner in class rooms of science, physics and theology. Perhaps if you include the essence of possibility, perspective, perception and experience to the quotation of study and research, some of these detractors might change their minds.   Philosophy is not just a culmination of theories and ideas the science sets out to prove, but it's also the search for faith. Unfortunately faith and spirituality are not easily proven by physical science.   From Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle We Learn Of Metaphysics. Each one of the great philosophers can find a common thread of agreement and perspective in previous history. Studies of mysticism and spirituality have existed since the dawn of time. So too have the theories and philosophies of those beliefs and the physical laws of the universe. Here are just a few of the great philosophers and how each one has added their own influences to the creation of modern day Metaphysics. Pythagoras: The Greek philosopher and mathematician was born in about 580 BC on the island of Samos, in the Aegean Sea. He spent many years in search of wisdom and became known as one of histories wisest of men. His theories and teachings certainly influenced later thinkers and philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. After traveling much of the known world, Pythagoras finally settled in Crotona, Italy round 530 BC. A small Greek village that seemed perfect for a wise philosopher to sit and think.   He founded the Pythagorean brotherhood, around 530 BC as well. The brotherhood was actually a group of young men who gathered around Pythagoras, hoping to learn from his wisdom and inspired by his teachings. They were very spiritual in nature and form, dedicated to reforming political, moral and social life within society. The group became so widely known and popular that it grew into a formidable political lobbyist machine. Because of this political impact, the brotherhood was disbanded and Pythagoras was forced to retire and leave home. He went to Metapontum, a Greek city in southern Italy where he died around 500 BC.   Unfortunately, all of the writings he made describing his views and perceptions were destroyed in one fashion or another. We know about many of his theories through the writings of others who credit Pythagoras with influencing their own work. But that makes it difficult to distinguish his theories from those of his benefactors.   The basic concepts of the Pythagoreans are that reality, at its deepest level, is mathematical in nature. That philosophy can be used for spiritual purification and that the soul can rise to union or re-union with the divine. He also believed that certain symbols have a mystical significance or spiritual 'power'. A study, research and use of these symbols would help an individual find wisdom within themselves and a personal connection to the divine wisdom as well. Although Pythagoras spent much of his life dedicated to his concepts of spirituality, he is more widely known for his contributions in mathematical equations. It's interesting that his dedication to proving his spiritual theory reality is mathematical, gained him more acclaim as a mathematician. His theory of the functional significance of numbers in the objective world and in music were possibly a by product to this desire of spiritual living. His followers are credited with the development of the Pythagorean theorem in geometry and the application of number relationships to music theory, acoustics, and astronomy. All of which are based on Pythagoras' principles of reality mathematics.   Heraclitus: Born sometime around 540 BC and died around 475 BC. Little is known about this Greek philosopher, except for some of his writings which taught that life is in motion with constant change, from being to not-being. He believed that his concept is the fundamental principle of the universe, and that all things are part of one primary substance, that being the essence of fire.   Socrates: Credited with being the first of the 3 great Greek Philosophers, (the other two being Plato and Aristotle). He was born sometime around 470 BC and died in 399 BC. in a small village outside Athens. His father was a sculpture, who tried to teach the craft to his son. But Socrates quickly moved on to find his own way in the world. He went out living life simply and frugally, needing only the bare necessities to survive. He didn't wish for power, money or material things. He just went out amongst the people to 'seek the truth'.   Not commonly known was that Socrates was actually a very courageous soldier, fighting in the Peloponnesian war. He is even credited with saving the life of The young, aristocratic military genius Alcibiades, at Potidaea.   Married to Xanthippe, known for her quick temper and tongue, the sage once jokingly said, "As I intended to associate with all kinds of people, I thought nothing they could do would disturb me, once I had accustomed myself to bear the disposition of Xanthippe."   In later years Socrates was often seen wandering the wearing a single rough woolen garment, always in bare feet and speaking with anyone who would listen. In modern times he would be labeled as arrogant and egotistical. He would ask questions, criticize answers and destroyed his 'opponent' with their own faulty argument. Today, this method of conversation is often referred to as Socratic dialogue.   Despite his method of conversation, Socrates was actually enjoyable to be with according to records and the news of the day. He was considered to be the wisest man of his time. Never taking himself too seriously, maintaining his self-control, and with during any debate of any topic. Alcibiades said of him, "His nature is so beautiful, golden, divine, and wonderful within that everything he commands surely ought to be obeyed even like the voice of a god."   "Know thyself" was the motto he is said to have learned from the oracle at Delphi. Reportedly he translated that for others as, knowing oneself is knowing goodness, despite what we present to the outside world.   Unfortunately his views were not accepted by all Athenians. Especially those in the political arena who needed a platform for their own self-serving principles. Socrates, often exposed these "leaders" as frauds, which made him many enemies. In the end, 3 of these politicians charged Socrates with "neglecting the Gods" and "Corrupting the youth of Athens". Even though many knew the charges to be false, there was little that could be done. Socrates, was sentenced to death, reportedly to die by ingesting hemlock. His final comments to the judges at his trial and sentencing were recorded in Plato's `Apology': "The hour of departure has arrived, and we go our ways. I to die, and you to live. Which is better God only knows."   Plato: Born around 428 BC in Athens, he was raised during the Greek conflict with Sparta known as the Peloponnesian War. His parents, Ariston and Perictione, were one of the most distinguished and aristocratic couples in the city. Because of his family position it is well assumed that he knew the great philosopher Socrates as a child. Surely the reputation and many political functions which requested the attendance of Socrates, gave the young Plato a wonderful teacher and friend. Little is known about Socrates, except through the writings of Plato. Because of this, many scholars believe Socrates was either a tutor of the young aristocrat, or that he saw the promise within the mind of this young child.   With the stature of his family behind him, many people thought Plato would be destined for a successful life in politics. Perhaps because of the death sentences bestowed on Socrates, the younger philosopher thought better of that idea. Instead, Plato and a few of Socrates proteges left Athens after the death of their mentor and took up residence in Megara.   Reportedly, Plato traveled throughout Greece, Egypt, Italy and Sicily, but today none of this can be confirmed. Except for a brief trip to Sicily where he met and befriended Dion, the brother-in-law of the Syracuse Ruler Dionysus I. Additional reports suggest that this friendship allowed Plato return to Athens and open his Athens Academy, the forerunner to modern universities. Rumors suggest that Dionysus was so impressed with the depth, knowledge and wisdom of young philosopher, that he rewarded him with a large sum of money.   Plato did not return to Syracuse until 367 BC, when he was summoned by his old friend Dion. After the death of Dionysus I, his son Dionysus II took the throne. The son was uneducated youth, destined to fail as a ruler. Dion had hoped Plato could educate the young king. But Plato returned to Athens calling the task hopeless. He tried once more in 361 BC, but had no better luck.   It was this reward from Dionysus I, and the political influences he gained through this association, that allowed Plato to return Athens and open his Academy in the face of the judges and politicians who had sentenced his mentor to death for the same principles. The Academy wasn't just a school of philosophy, but also of law, and scientific research and mathematics. It remained open until 529 AD when it and other non-Christian schools were closed by the emperor Justinian.   Plato was the most noted and celebrated teacher of his day. His studies and body of work were taken up by countless scholars, in his later years and especially after his death. Philo of Alexandria used Plato's ideas to give a philosophical framework to Judaism. Early Christian writers eagerly embraced Plato's thought as the best available instrument for explaining and defending the teachings of the Bible and church tradition. Of the Christian Platonists, St. Augustine of Hippo was the best known and most influential of these writers. Through the teachings and writings of Avicenna and Averroes, Plato's influence migrated into Islam.   Aristotle: Born in 384 BC in Stagira, on the northwest coast of the Aegean Sea. Aristotle was the son of the physician to the king of Macedonia. As such, he spent most of his boyhood in and around the royal court. His father began schooling his son in the sciences at an early age. His access to the great thinkers of Macedonia in the royal palace surely had an influence on the young philosopher as well.   By 17, Aristotle was ready to continue his education in a more formal setting. He enrolled in the Academy of Athens and was soon being called 'the mind of the school' by his mentor and teacher, Plato. During his 20 years at the academy, Aristotle through himself into the theories and studies set forth by Plato. Together they expanded not only their minds, by the views and perspectives of society as a whole. Past and present.   Aristotle left the academy in 347 BC after the death of his beloved friend and teacher. Later Aristotle would denounce many of Plato's theories, putting forth many of his own. Giving some credit to Aristotle, his research and theories truly went far beyond the original ideas and thoughts of Plato.   He became a teacher in a small school on the coast of Asia Minor, later he studied marine biology in Lesbos. Then in 342 BC, he was invited to return to Macedonian, by King Phillip II; to teach the kings 13 year-old son. For 7 years Aristotle tutored the young prince who would become known as Alexander the Great. After his coronation at 20, King Alexander bestowed a very large sum of money to his teacher for the purpose of setting up a school in Athens.   He gave his school the name of Lyceum and was often seen walking through it's wondrous garden. Because of this frequent sabbatical, Athenians called his school the Peripatetic (which means "to walk about") school. One of Aristotle's most important contributions was defining and classifying the various branches of knowledge. He sorted them into physics, metaphysics, psychology, rhetoric, poetics, and logic, and thus laid the foundation of most of the sciences of today.   In 323 BC a feeling of anti-Macedonian seized the city. Once again the Athenians accused their greatest philosopher of lacking reverence for the Gods. Instead of facing his detractors as Socrates did, Aristotle fled to Chalcis on the island of Euboea where he died within the year.   After his death, many of Aristotle's writings vanished or were scattered throughout western Europe. By the middle ages, the only articles known to exist were his writings of Logic. These writings became the basis of the 3 Medieval trivium: logic, grammar, and rhetoric.   By the 13th century, more writings were found and were eventually translated into Latin. The best known writings are `Organon' (treatises on logic) `Rhetoric'; `Poetics' `History of Animals' `Metaphysics' `De Anima' (on psychology) `Nicomachean Ethics' `Politics' `Constitution of Athens'   I'd like to thank "Gss The 1 Saint", for his inspiration and assistance in writing this article.

Source: 1, b8, b12, o15, o22